Part 9 – Early Uprisings against Ottoman Rule

Part 9 – Early Uprisings against Ottoman Rule

As soon as the Ottomans consolidated their control over parts of Macedonian territory they began a process of Islamization where people generally, by choice or by force, were encouraged to accept the Islamic religion and become Muslims. After the Balkan conquests the Ottoman Empire was divided into two large Bejlerbejliks, or administrative units. The rulers of these provinces, the Bejlerbejs, were appointed directly by the Sultan. The Bejlerbejs were the highest local military commanders in the Bejlerbejliks or Pashaliks as they later came to be known. The Rumelia or European Bejlerbejlik incorporated the territories of the Turkish provinces of Europe. This Pashalik was further divided into smaller units called sanjaks or jivi, which made up the basic military and territorial administrative components of the empire. Each pashalik was also divided into kazas where each kaza represented a judicial district for which a qadi or judge was responsible. With time and with the extension of the empire’s frontiers the number of Bejlerbejliks grew and their nature began to change. Bejlerbejliks became elajets or pashaliks and during the 1470’s two Kaziaskers, or Supreme Military Judges, were appointed: one in Rumelia and the other in Anatolia in Asia Minor. There was also a Nichandji, or Keeper of the Imperial Seal, who sat at the head of the administration and, on behalf of the Sultan, placed the seal on all acts issued by the central government. Financial affairs were handled by the Defterdars. The Divan, or State Council headed by the Grand Vizier, consisted of the highest state officials, including viziers, kaziaskers and defterdars, who regularly met to discuss and resolve important state matters. The Ottomans did not have the numbers to maintain control over the vast ranges of territory they had occupied so they depended on the local Islam converts to aid them. In return they were allowed, by Muslim law, to maintain some control over their properties and possessions. So naturally those who had a lot to gain, such as large landholders, quickly converted to Islam. This however was not the case with everyone, some stubbornly refused and paid with their lives while others became outlaws and fought back. Ottoman occupation of Macedonia not only brought loss of property and land but more devastatingly it attacked the core of the Macedonian people’s Christian faith. Even so the process of Islamization was not always enforced and many people were allowed to practice their own religions. In the beginning Ottoman rule proved to be tolerant of feudal relations and the subjugated people to some degree were allowed to practice their own culture, folk customs and traditions and speak their language. But as Ottoman expansion came to an end with a number of military failures during the 16th century, anarchy, inflexibility and corruption became rampant in the Ottoman administration. As a result the Macedonian people began to experience social problems, more than usual economic exploitation and religious and ethnic differences became reasons for discord. This of course created discontentment in the exploited and abused leading them to resist and even struggle for liberation. It is important at this point to look at the initial development of the resistance process because it later served as a model for the 19th century revolutionary movements, including the Ilinden National Uprising and the Antifascist National Liberation War. Resistance to forced Islamization began around the mid 16th century when people had had enough of injustices perpetrated by their rulers. In 1555 Gorgi, from the town of Kratovo, was burnt to death in Sofia because he did not want to become a Muslim. Zlata Meglenska lost her life because she did not want to convert to Islam and marry a prominent Muslim. Both these people were later granted sainthood by the Orthodox Church for their devotion to Christianity and for their martyrdom. The first resistance to Ottoman occupation came from the so called haiduks, a Turkish word meaning “outlaws or bandits”.

People who refused to become Muslims by force, people who fought in their defense against authority, even people who committed punishable crimes and ran away to avoid severe punishment or death went into hiding and became haiduks. Unable to work and earn a legitimate living the haiduks resorted to stealing in order to survive. As more and more haiduks went into hiding they began to organize into small gangs and attacked travelers, robbing them of their possessions. The haiduks had a particular distaste for authority and usually targeted wealthy Muslims, not just for the loot but also in revenge for the injustices done to them. As the life of the haiduk became common practice more and more individuals began to band together and formed larger groups. As these groups grew, they began to arm themselves not only for defense but to oppose Ottoman violence, economic exploitation and to acquire resources for their survival. Some people joined the haiduks purely for profit because it was easier to rob than to work. As the haiduks became shrewd survivors and skilled warriors they began to branch out and conducted revenge killings and supported village rebellions. Later the haiduk movement became the first form of struggle for national liberation. To keep themselves save from the law, the haiduks hid in forests, mountains, swamps and other places where it was difficult for the law to pursue them. Even though they lived a lawless life, most haiduks kept in touch with their families and their villages. They may have been bandits and outlaws to the Ottomans but they were not evil men and most

oppressed Christians saw them as heroes who stood up to the Ottoman tyrants in defense of rights and justice. When the haiduk movement became more than just men running from the law, family members began to join in an effort to defend the family and the village. In essence the haiduks became a mini-army fighting battles to protect families and villages. The haiduk tradition was passed on from generation to generation and so were haiduk weapons. Weapons were passed from generation to generation and were regarded as the most prized equipment in the haiduk's possession. Weapons provided self-confidence and personal independence which is why a good weapon was passed from one haiduk to another; usually carrying a story with it. It was a special honour to have won a weapon in battle. If a haiduk was killed, or left the haiduk movement, his weapon was given to another haiduk. The glory of the predecessor was always considered, as well as the capabilities of the one inheriting the weapon of glory. The most common way for a haiduk to acquire a weapon was to take it from the enemy during battle. In the beginning haiduk groups were disorganized and lacked discipline and planning but with experience they became resourceful. The first forms of organization were units of a dozen or two men lead by an arambasha or leader. It is interesting to note here that the arambasha was an elected member who came from the haiduk unit and whose leadership abilities were most prized. The arambasha’s responsibilities were paramount not only in leading the unit but in arming, training, planning and providing for it. Besides providing for his own men, it was the arambasha’s responsibility to also provide for the families, widows and orphans of the men who lost their lives under his command. That is why the bravest, most responsible and smartest were elected to the position of arambasha. After an arambasha was elected every man in his unit had to pledge allegiance to him by taking the “Haiduk Oath” of obedience and loyalty which was done under the flag. Each haiduk unit had its own flag which was custom embroidered by young maidens; most often relatives of the haiduks. When conducting missions or exercises the flag was carried on a flagpole by the bairaktar or flag carrier, usually the arambasha’s deputy. Each unit had its own flag decorated with a red background symbolizing the blood of those who lost their lives for freedom. The flag symbolized the haiduks’ collective conscience and was the signature of the haiduk unit. The flag was flown ahead of the unit while songs were sung to lift the spirits of the fighters and inspire enthusiasm among the Macedonian population. Some of the larger units even had scribes who, in Alexander the Greats’ tradition, recorded their missions for posterity. Besides training for combat, haiduks were also trained for leadership skills, reconnaissance and intelligence work. A unit was a well disciplined functional organization formed on the basis of friendship and trust. As mentioned earlier most haiduks were recruited from volunteers but if there were specific needs to be met the arambasha recruited from trusted contacts in the villages under his protection. Haiduk companies were usually created in the spring and dismissed before winter. Those unable to go home spent their winter in hiding. The strength of the haiduk unit was its ability to react at lightning speed. Successful units were renowned for their physical and mental readiness, courage, fellowship, resourcefulness and endurance. Despite the strict discipline requirements which called for total obedience, the haiduks practiced a sort of military democracy where decision making for major missions was done with input from each individual haiduk. Once a final decision was made every man had to follow the arambasha’s exact orders unconditionally. In this way the arambasha had absolute authority and for this responsibility he was amply rewarded with a larger share of the plunder.

Naturally the most successful units not only prospered but became a magnet for new recruits which allowed them to expand into a small army. Haiduk units did not always operate alone. Sometimes they combined forces for more difficult missions. In such cases one of the existing arambashes was raised to chief arambasha and given responsibility of the entire company. The most famous of these were Karposh and lljo Maleshevski. Second in command and importance in a haiduk unit was the bairaktar whose responsibility above carrying the flag was to assist the arambasha and during critical missions take command of the unit in the absence of the arambasha. This meant that he too had to possess good leadership qualities to qualify for the job. That is why the bairaktar was also voted by the unit and approved by the arambasha. The internal structure of a haiduk company was not very different from that of military organizations. Although each unit may have been no larger than 40 haiduks, a company may have been as large as 4,000 haiduks. The larger numbers usually came together in times of crisis when they were required to repeal bandits, to fight off the Ottoman army, or during planned rebellions. The smaller units were more versatile and easier to deploy. To be a haiduk one had to be in constant readiness because the haiduk’s survival was dependent on his ability to act fast to escape a trap or to carry out a mission. That is why it was imperative that the haiduk’s saber had to be sharp at all times and the haiduk had to be in a good physical and mental condition. The kind of tactics haiduk units could carry out largely depended on the weapons they possessed, so they had to choose their weapons carefully. In the beginning choice weapons were crude such as sticks, various knifes, pitchforks, hatchets, spears, arches, arrows, sabers, maces, swords, sickles, scythes, yataghans, armour and shields. These weapons were usually handmade by the haiduks themselves and were carved with various inscriptions and designs fitting for the cause. Some of the weapons that were made in workshops had ornaments of gold, silver, pearls, etc. added to them. Although the quality of the blade determined the value of the weapon, the handle was usually especially dressed with various ornaments and prayers. The most famous Macedonian weapons in earlier times were the “dimiskia” saber made in Damascus, and the “frangia” saber made in France. The haiduks are also known to have used poisoned arrow tips, lit arrows and Thracian spears. The type of weapon the haiduk’s possessed was largely dependent on the type of weapons available. As technology advanced so did the weapons. Later as the Ottoman army began to use rifles, pistols and other firearms, they too began to fall into the possession of the haiduks. Although it appeared two centuries earlier, the rifle was officially introduced as the main weapon of the Ottoman Army in the 18th century. The haiduks quickly adopted its use and began to understand its advantages in warfare over conventional weapons. Before the rifle, haiduks fought the enemy hand-to-hand but with the rifle they could set ambushes and kill from the distance. For this reason the firearm became a most valued weapon of the haiduk. Even with rifles in their possession haiduk units, for the most part, fought guerilla warfare with speed, mobility, maneuvering capabilities, clandestineness and rapidity as their best tactics. They were very successful at ambushes and setting traps and good at avoiding getting caught. Before conducting missions they conducted reconnaissance, then avoided populated areas and unfamiliar paths, or crossing through the woods. Road ambushes were conducted with rapidity and sudden fire or in some cases by pelting their targets with rocks then followed by an assault with sticks and swords. Villages and other populated places were usually attacked by night from all sides and by making sure their retreat routes were well protected. The most common targets of the haiduks were the spahis (feudal landlords), beys, pashas, caravans, tax collectors, janissaries and martolozes (protectors).

Common targets also included traitors, collaborators, rich persons and haiduk pursuers. Before a mission, reconnaissance information was gathered by special reconnaissance patrols. Just prior to the mission the arambasha held a meeting with all the haiduks and carefully informed everyone about the mission and its retreat strategy. After that each haiduk was given his specific assignment for the mission. The haiduk movements had become such a nuisance to the authorities that around the beginning of the 17th century, all main roads had to be patrolled and protected. The Ottoman Government set up armed patrols to travel along the roads and escort caravans and passengers. Anyone caught attempting to commit robbery on the road was severely punished. The punishment for a haiduk was beheading and impaling the head on a stake or hanging it on a metal hook. Regardless of punishment however, the haiduk movement was active in Macedonia for centuries and as haiduk tactics gradually advanced a military tradition was established. Rebellions and uprisings were part of life in Macedonia for centuries. The despair as a consequence of hard life, merciless abuse, torture and injustice brought discontent and bitterness to the Macedonian people and on occasion drove them to stand up and fight for their rights. Life for the ordinary Macedonian was hard enough without the injustices of the occupiers and when compounded with unjust practices drove people to resort to extreme violence manifesting itself in armed rebellions and uprisings. In the beginning uprisings were small disturbances mostly confined to villages and usually provoked by corrupt individuals working for the state. Usually lead by the village leader, a rebellion was started to bring attention to the higher authorities. Unfortunately in most cases authorities would persecute the plaintiffs instead of solving their problems, which in the long term caused the problem to simmer and erupt again with the next provocation. A bad practice by the authorities was to allow Ottoman forces to mercilessly take revenge on the population after quelling the uprising and increase taxes to pay for the expenses incurred by engaging the military. In the 541 years of Ottoman rule in Macedonia (from the battle of Maritsa in 1371 to the First Balkan War of 1912) the Macedonian people showed their discontent by resisting in various ways such as leaving their properties, avoiding taxes, assassinating state administration representatives, burning the houses and properties of those in charge and joining haiduk movements in armed rebellions and uprisings. I want to say here that it was not just the Christians who suffered at the corrupt hands of the Ottomans. Poor Muslims also experienced the same fate, especially the poor Yuruk colonists from Anatolia who were transplanted in the Balkans to support the Ottoman Empire. In times of crisis the poor, regardless of religion or ethnicity, banded together to protect themselves. The first rebellions were mainly in response to repressive measures taken to Islamize the Christian population. This is when different civilian ethnic groups banded together as Christians to lead a united front against a common enemy. In February 1560 in the region between Debar, Ohrid and Kruje Macedonians and Albanians banded together and initiated a massive rebellion against the Ottomans by killing the spahis, torching their houses and by taking their livestock. Then they blocked all roads leading to Bitola, Solun and Skopje, the roads leading to Albania’s salt-works harbours and stormed the local fortresses (except the Drevnik fortress in Brez where a large Ottoman force was stationed). At this point the Bey of the Elbasan sanjak sent a message to the Sultan in Istanbul informing him that taxes could not be collected because of the unrest. The Sultan in return responded by ordering all forces in Ohrid, Elbasan, Kruje and Dukagjin and some of his special forces to attack and squash the rebellion.

His orders were carried out brutally and mercilessly. Those who fought on the side of the rebellion were executed. Those who opposed the rebellion were Islamized and rewarded with the properties of the rebels. In 1569, encouraged by priests from Venice, a rebellion was started in the sanjak of Ohrid. In the following years the villagers continued to oppose the Ottomans by attacking caravans and storming fortresses. On one occasion the rebels captured 50 Ottoman soldiers, prompting the Sultan to order the spahis from Bitola and Korcha to retaliate. The rebels resisted so the Sultan was forced to send troops all the way from Herzegovina to suppress them. In 1571 a group of about 300 well-armed Christian rebels who had refused to pay taxes for the last two years banded together near the village of Ezerani and stormed the Ottomans. This rebellion too was instigated by the priests of Venice through the consultation of archbishop Atanasij I from Ohrid. This particular rebellion lasted longer than expected due to lack of Ottoman resources to quell it. So on July 25th, 1571 the vazir Ahmet Pasha issued orders to divide the Ohrid sanjak, which extended from the Adriatic Sea in the west to Gavato in the east, into two parts with one center in Ohrid and the other in Elbasan. This was done to double the authority in the region so that the situation could be monitored more closely and rebellions would effectively be quelled before they could get out of hand. Ohrid Region is full of mountains and forests where the rebels hid and planned their raids, so it took considerable time, almost a year, and much effort on the Ottomans part to put down the rebellion. All captured rebels were killed; those who surrendered were put in chains and sent to Istanbul to serve as oarsmen in the Sultan’s galleys. That was not the end of the rebellion however. Soon afterwards in 1572 it spread to the Golemo and Malo Rech villages in Ohrid Region and to Sebekren and Mastar in Akchehisar Region. Then in the spring of 1573 several villages in Prespa Region joined. All these rebellions were the result of people refusing to pay exorbitant taxes. Some of the most prominent leaders that lead the rebellions were the priest Kara Papas and village leaders Mitre Terek and Ratko Novak. Rebellions continued to be raised in the Ohrid sanjak until the end of the 16th century which brought Macedonians and Albanians together to fight for a common cause. This common cause was chronicled by an Albanian officer in a letter to Pope Clement VIII dated July 1593. The letter was stamped with the inscription “Stamp of the Kingdom of Macedonia and Albania”. (Stojĉev, Vanĉe. “Military History of Macedonia”. P.132) While the rebellions in Ohrid Region were raging, another Macedonian-Albanian rebellion flared up in Dolni Debar. Lead by the village leader Pali Bert, this rebellion started in February 1560 when a number of rebels burned down spahi properties and confiscated their livestock. Soon afterwards a second and third group took to the streets in neighbouring villages ransacking spahi properties and blockading roads. In no time at all the number of rebels rose to over 500. This rebellion too was suppressed but as usual the problem that caused it was never addressed so it simmered for several years until it flared up again in August 1659. This time 10,000 rebels took to the streets and overpowered the authorities in Vranovce, Leunovo and Tenovo villages and then spread to the cities of Gostivar, Tetovo, Debar and Skopje. Although massive in numbers, this particular rebellion fizzled out quickly and turned into bandit attacks and robberies until it was put down in 1609. To prevent further problems the state began to implement policies of forced, large scale Islamization. People were given a choice to become Muslim or die. Concurrent to the Ohrid and Debar rebellions another rebellion was taking place in Mariovo-Prilep lasting between 1564 and 1565. This particular rebellion began in Mariovo as a result of strict enforcement of rules instigated by the all powerful Sultan Stileyman the Magnificent (1520-1566) or the Legislator as he was then called by the Ottomans.

Being the most central Ottoman province in Europe, Macedonia was severely exploited. The Mariovo rebellion, termed the first all Macedonian planned rebellions, was a result of this exploitation. Organized by Christian Macedonians this rebellion was aimed at liberating the region and is considered a precursor to all national liberations in the Balkans that began in the 16th century. The actual date of the liberation is unknown, it is assumed to have begun sometime in August or September 1564, what is known however is that it started in Satoka, Gradeshnitsa, Besishte and Staravina in Mariovo Region, in one of the poorest, most isolated and most inaccessible places in the region. Here the haiduk tradition was well developed and the region was populated by ethnic Macedonians. Ottoman colonization and Islamization had not yet penetrated. Organized by Dimitri Stale from Sotika, priest Dimitry from Gradeshnitsa, Matio Nikola from Beshishte and Stojan Pejo and priest

Jako from Staravina, the rebellion was timed to begin with the arrival of the Ottoman tax collectors. The information about this rebellion and the name of its leaders comes to us from the vizier Mustafa Pasha who on October 3, 1564 sent orders to the sanjakbey Uveis in Skopje and the kadi in Prilep requesting what punishment to exact on the rebel leaders for their disobedience. (Stojchev, Vanche. “Military History of Macedonia”. P.135) Another document was issued by the Sublime Port on December 4, 1565 which pinned the cause of the rebellion on a dispute between the raya (villagers) and the manager of the has (Emperor’s land). The people of Mariovo and Prilep accused the manager of taking more than prescribed by law which was disputed by the manager. The case was taken to trial and when the judge ruled against the people, they took up arms. The rebellion quickly spread from Mariovo to Prilep. It is unknown how the rebellion was suppressed or what happened to its leaders. There were, however, letters found with evidence that the Sultan may have sentenced the leaders to death by public execution and committed the followers to life sentences to be served as oarsmen on the Sultan's galleys. In revenge the Ottomans burned down two villages. The trials and tribulations of life in Mariovo-Prilep are forever enshrined in Stale Popov’s novel “The Legend of Kalesh Andja” now translated into English by Michael Seraphinoff. Another early rebellion that took place in Macedonia was the Gavato rebellion of June 1639. This rebellion was sparked by the arrival of Ottoman authorities looking for the famous haiduk Belche who at the time was hiding in the village Gaveto. Even though Gaveto was a dervenijs town loyal to the Ottomans and responsible for protecting the main road and gorge, it was also a haiduk hideout. Belche was a Gaveto resident with family and friends so when the Ottoman authorities arrived the town’s people refused to give him up. Forcing their way through the crowd the Ottomans, lead by Osman, called upon Belche to surrender. Unable to escape Belche was apprehended. Seeing that there was no other way to save him, Mite Nikola, a local leader called upon the crowd to attack. Soon the town reached pandemonium and fights broke out. While the crowd used pitchforks and sticks to attack, the Ottoman used their rifles and sabers to defend themselves, killing several rebels in the process including Belche. Osman cut off Belche’s head and took it to the judge in Bitola as proof of Belche’s death. One hundred and twenty four years after the first rebellion in Mariovo another rebellion was started in 1688 and lasted until 1689. This one was started as a result of people in authority abusing local businesses. A law had been passed prohibiting Ottomans in authority to stay in the local inns but the beglerbeys and sanjakbeys with their escorts ignored the law and took advantage of the innkeepers by using their facilities, eating their food and not paying. Above that they abused the local women and often beat and tortured those objecting. With time the situation became worse, prompting the businesses to rebel and abandon their places of work. The loss of business prompted Ibrahim Pasha, the Ottoman in charge of the region, to complain to the Sublime Porte requesting that it put an end to the unlawful use of the inns and to force the innkeepers to return. As a result of this passive walkout the Sultan, in April 1665, ordered the Ottoman authorities to take appropriate measures and protect the villagers. Unfortunately as usual local authorities ignored the Sultan’s orders and continued business as usual until the villages became fed-up and in November 1668 started another rebellion by quitting their jobs and joining the haiduk movement. Dissatisfied with the situation, instead of punishing the lawbreakers, the Sultan ordered that the haiduks be caught and punished. This prompted even more riots and the rebellion spread to Veles, Prilep, Voden and Bitola.

One good thing about the Mariovo rebellion was that it interrupted the process of turning the Mariovo villages into Ottoman chifliks. It also prevented Ottoman settlers from moving in.