Front Matter - Part 01

Timeline Macedonian History at a Glance - Chronology of key events

Compiled by Risto Stefov

Timeline Macedonian History at a Glance - Chronology of key events

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Version 1

August 10, 2016

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-- PREHISTORY --

240,000 B.C. - A fossil of Homo erectus was uncovered in Patraloni, Chalcidice near Solun, dating back to this period.

10,000 B.C. - Latest ice age retreats from the Balkans.

7,000 B.C. - First “tell” type settlements built with clay bricks appear near Solun. First signs of agriculture appear in the Aegean part of the Balkans over the Vardar River along the Danube and widening towards Europe. The Lepenski Vir cult and paleographyisms begin to appear.

6,000 B.C. - Footsteps of human culture appear in the terrain along the flow of the Vardar, Bistritsa, Tsrna and Bregalitsa Rivers.

5,500-3,500 B.C. - Neolithic settlement found in the village Dupiak on the shore of Lake Kostur in Western Macedonia. First paleographyisms appear. Macedonians are settling on the shores of the Bistritsa River.

3,500 B.C. - Pelazgians traveling over Asia Minor arrive and settle in Balkan Pelazgia.

3,500-2,500 B.C. - Diminit culture in Magnesia (Macedonian tribes) and Minoan tablets appear. Podunavtsi (Minoans, Lapits, Tirons, Flegeans in Eolia) (Thessaly).

2,300 B.C. - Makedon son of Osiris, the Macedonian Mythological Dynasty, and Makedon son of Zeus, the Macedonian Mythological Dynasty appear.

2,100-1,900 B.C. - The Armenooro (Rupishta) culture appears in Pelagonia and Thessaly.

1,700 B.C. - Linear A writing finds its way into the Aegean culture.

1,600 B.C. - Migration of the Achaeans to Thessalean Phtiotida, and later to Achaea in the Peloponnesus and in Asia Minor took place under the leadership of Pelop.

1,500-1,200 B.C. - Linear B writing found its way in Crete, Mikena and Pil.

1,400 B.C. - Mikena is founded.

1,300 B.C. - Makedon’s Mythical Dynasty begins according to Hesiod.

1,313 B.C. - Cadmus of Phoenicia finds Thebes. Phoenician script comes to the City States.

1,294 B.C. - Macedonian kings Pirrhus, Aematea and Pind appear.

1,248 B.C. - Orpheus, king of Macedonia invents alphabet

1,225 B.C. - Midas becomes king of Macedonia

1,225 B.C. - Argonaut expedition begins

The Argonaut, Minoan and other Aeolian expeditions begin.

1,213 B.C. - “War of the seven against Thebes” begins

1,200 B.C. - Illyrian, Dorian and Epirean migration of the people of the sea begins and so does the migration of the Phrygians, Strimoneans and Bithynians from the Balkans to Asia Minor. Macedonian free migration of Baeotians from Pind to Baeotia and Tespotians to Thessaly. Agamemnon is crowned.

1,200 (1193) B.C. - Trojan Wars begin

1,119 (1,183) B.C. - Troy falls

1,124 B.C. - Exodus of Achaeans from Thessaly to Aeolia in Asia Minor.

1,120 B.C. - Dorian settlement of Thessaly begins. Exodus of the Aeolians.

1,104 B.C. - Dorians conquer Peloponnesus

Dorians with help from the Macedonians conquer and settle the Peloponnesus. Exodus of the Aeolians from the Peloponnesus to Aeolia in Asia Minor.

1,068 or 1,050 B.C. - Dorians conquer Athens

1,044 B.C. - Exodus of Ionians from Balkans to Ionia in Asia Minor.

1000 B.C. - Macedonians, formed during the Iron Age, from Brygian substratum and from Indo-European super stratum settled here at the end of the II millennium; the Macedonians, according to legends got their name from the mythological ancestor Macedon (Hes. Ap. Const. Prph., de them). Maketa, the oldest name of Macedonia (Makedonis), after the mythological original ancestor Maketa (Hes; Eoeae. Fr. 7).

850 B.C. - Process of establishing a mutual state is run by the first Macedonian dynasty, the Argeadai which originated from Argos Orestikon (App., Syr., 63; Diod., VII, 15; G. Sync., I, 373); Of the legendary rulers, the last three, Caranus, cca 796, Koinos and Tirimus (Diod., VII, 15; Eusebios, Hronika, I), were most probably historical kings.

-- ANCIENT HISTORY --

808 B.C. - Caranus (808-778) is believed to have been the first king to rule the Macedonian kingdom. According to Aleksandar Donski the name Caran(us) might be connected to the present day Macedonian noun ‘kruna’ (a crown). The name ‘Karanche’ is present in today’s Macedonian onomasticon.

778 B.C. - Coinus (778–750) becomes king of Macedonia.

776 B.C. - First Olympic Games and restoration 20 750 B.C. - Homer. Homer created true literary masterpieces that are enjoyed as much today, as they were in the days of Alexander the Great. Originally, Homer’s stories were folktales told and retold for centuries until they were immortalized in print in the 6th century BC. What is most interesting about Homer’s stories, especially the Iliad, is that they were originally written in the prehistoric Macedonian language. The first paleolinguist to openly proclaim the similarities between the words of the Iliad and those of the modern Slavic languages was the German Homerologist, Pasov. Inspired by Pasov and others, researcher Odisej Belchevsky has furthered the study by illustrating the fundamental relationship between the modern Macedonian language and the language of Homer. Homer in his works the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey”, considered to be reliable sources for the so called “Greek Mythology” and the “Greek gods”, NEVER ONCE mentions the word “Greek” or any other name derived from this word!

750 B.C. - Chyrimasus (750–707) (Tyrimmas?) becomes king of Macedonia.

700 B.C. - Hesiod. According to Encarta, mythology in written form appeared for the first time in the literary works of Hesiod and Homer around the eighth century BC. Homer, as we know, produced the famous works the “Iliad” and “Odyssey” and Hesiod produced the poems “Theogony”. Both authors in their respective works talk about the various tales and legends associated with ancient deities. Hesiod, however, according to Encarta, takes a step further and introduces a larger number of myths that include deities that are not mentioned by Homer. Hesiod, in “Theogony”, who talks about the creation of the world, the birth of the gods as well as their adventures, NEVER ONCE mentions “Greek” or any other name derived from this word!

700 B.C. - Perdiccas I (700-678) appears in Orestis (Argos Orestikon-Rupishta, Kostur Region) in Western Macedonia. Perdiccas is the founder of the Macedonian historical Argaed Dynasty. The first Macedonian throne is established in Aegae.

We know from Herodotus that Perdiccas and his brothers moved the Macedonian center but no date for the move was given. “Herodotus (8.183) wrote that ‘[Perdiccas] came to another part of Macedonia and settled near the gardens named after Midas, son of Gordias…above the garden rises the mountain called Bermion, unassailable in winter’.” (Page 65, Eugene Borza, In the Shadow of Olympus The Emergence of Macedon, New Jersey, 1990) I believe this other part of Macedonia, to which Herodotus is referring, is located near the city of present day Voden. Being capable of living in mountainous terrain, I believe the Macedonians descended to Voden via a more direct route over the mountains rather than following the Bistritsa River, as some historians have argued. Unconfirmed, is my belief that Aegae was established near Voden during the 7th century BC and became the second Macedonian capital. Hammond estimates that Perdiccas came to the throne in 650BC. (Page 11, Hammond, The Miracle that was Macedonia)

Beyond some stories about his younger days, there is little information written about Perdiccas and his accomplishments as the first king of Aegae. Translated by George Rawlinson, here is what Herodotus has to say about Perdiccas. “Three brothers, descendants of Temenus, fled from Argos to the Illyrians; their names were Gauanes, Aeropus, and Perdiccas. From Illyria they went across to Upper Macedonia, where they came to a certain town called Lebaea. There they hired themselves out to serve the king in different employs; one tended the horses; another looked after the cows; while Perdiccas, who was the youngest, took charge of the smaller cattle. In those early times poverty was not confined to the people: kings themselves were poor, and so here it was the king's wife who cooked the victuals. Now, whenever she baked the bread, she always observed that the loaf of the labouring boy Perdiccas swelled to double its natural size. So the queen, finding this never failed, spoke of it to her husband. Directly that it came to his ears, the thought struck him that it was a miracle, and boded something of no small moment. He therefore sent for the three labourers, and told them to begone out of his dominions. They answered, ‘they had a right to their wages; if he would pay them what was due, they were quite willing to go.’ Now it happened that the sun was shining down the chimney into the room where they were; and the king, hearing them talk of wages, lost his wits, and said, ‘There are the wages which

you deserve; take that- I give it you!’ and pointed, as he spoke, to the sunshine. The two elder brothers, Gauanes and Aeropus, stood aghast at the reply, and did nothing; but the boy, who had a knife in his hand, made a mark with it round the sunshine on the floor of the room, and said, ‘O king! we accept your payment.’ Then he received the light of the sun three times into his bosom, and so went away; and his brothers went with him. When they were gone, one of those who sat by told the king what the youngest of the three had done, and hinted that he must have had some meaning in accepting the wages given. Then the king, when he heard what had happened, was angry, and sent horsemen after the youths to slay them. Now there is a river in Macedonia to which the descendants of these Argives offer sacrifice as their saviour. This stream swelled so much, as soon as the sons of Temenus were safe across, that the horsemen found it impossible to follow. So the brothers escaped into another part of Macedonia, and took up their abode near the place called ‘the Gardens of Midas, son of Gordias.’ In these gardens there are roses which grow of themselves, so sweet that no others can come near them, and with blossoms that have as many as sixty petals apiece. It was here, according to the Macedonians, that Silenus was made a prisoner. Above the gardens stands a mountain called Bermius, which is so cold that none can reach the top. Here the brothers made their abode; and from this place by, degrees they conquered all Macedonia.” (From the first Book of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, ~440 BC THE HISTORY OF HERODOTUS, translated by George Rawlinson).

678 B.C. - Argaeus I (678- 640) becomes king of Macedonia.

645 B.C. - Phillip I (645-640) becomes king of Macedonia.

602 B.C. - Aeropus I (602-576) becomes king of Macedonia.

576 B.C. - Alcetas (576-547) becomes king of Macedonia.

541 B.C. - Amyntas I (541-498) becomes king of Macedonia.

540 B.C. - King Amyntas becomes a Persian Vassal

512 B.C. - Persian Invasion (512-497)

In an attempt to encircle the Black Sea, Persian forces crossed over the Bosporus Strait around 513 BC, defeated eastern Thrace, and marched westward up to the Struma basin. Victorious over the Thracians, King Darius left Megabazus, one of his commanders, in charge of his forces and returned to Persia. After making peace with the rest of the Thracian tribes, Megabazus deported some of the captured population to Asia, presumably for slave labour, and sent envoys to Macedonia to offer the Macedonians an opportunity for a peaceful settlement. Fearing the Persian wrath, king Amyntas offered no resistance and graciously accepted the envoys. As the story goes, everything went well until the Persians demanded that Macedonian women entertain them for the night. That demand did not sit well with the Macedonians and the Persian envoys disappeared, never to be found.

Here is what Herodotus had to say. As for Megabazus, he no sooner brought the Paeonians under, than he sent into Macedonia an embassy of Persians, choosing for the purpose the seven men of most note in all the army after himself. These persons were to go to Amyntas, and require him to give earth and water to King Darius. Now there is a very short cut from the Lake Prasias across to Macedonia. Quite close to the lake is the mine which yielded afterwards a talent of silver a day to Alexander; and from this mine you have only to cross the mountain called Dysorum to find yourself in the Macedonian territory. So the Persians sent upon this errand, when they reached the court, and were brought into the presence of Amyntas, required him to give earth and water to King Darius. And Amyntas not only gave them what they asked, but also invited them to come and feast with him; after which he made ready the board with great magnificence, and entertained the Persians in right friendly fashion. Now when the meal was over, and they were all set to the drinking, the Persians said- "Dear Macedonian, we Persians have a custom when we make a great feast to bring with us to the board our wives and concubines, and make them sit beside us. Now then, as thou hast received us so kindly, and feasted us so handsomely, and givest moreover earth and water to King Darius, do also after our custom in this matter." Then Amyntas answered-"O, Persians! We have no such custom as this; but with us men and

women are kept apart. Nevertheless, since you, who are our lords, wish it, this also shall be granted to you." When Amyntas had thus spoken, he bade some go and fetch the women. And the women came at his call and took their seats in a row over against the Persians. Then, when the Persians saw that the women were fair and comely, they spoke again to Amyntas and said, that "what had been done was not wise; for it had been better for the women not to have come at all, than to come in this way, and not sit by their sides, but remain over against them, the torment of their eyes." So Amyntas was forced to bid the women sit side by side with the Persians. The women did as he ordered; and then the Persians, who had drunk more than they ought, began to put their hands on them, and one even tried to give the woman next him a kiss. King Amyntas saw, but he kept silence, although sorely grieved, for he greatly feared the power of the Persians. Alexander, however, Amyntas' son, who was likewise there and witnessed the whole, being a young man and unacquainted with suffering, could not any longer restrain himself. He therefore, full of wrath, spoke thus to Amyntas:- "Dear father, thou art old and shouldst spare thyself. Rise up from table and go take thy rest; do not stay out the drinking. I will remain with the guests and give them all that is fitting." Amyntas, who guessed that Alexander would play some wild prank, made answer:- "Dear son, thy words sound to me as those of one who is well nigh on fire, and I perceive thou sendest me away that thou mayest do some wild deed. I beseech thee make no commotion about these men, lest thou bring us all to ruin, but bear to look calmly on what they do. For myself, I will even withdraw as thou biddest me." Amyntas, when he had thus besought his son, went out; and Alexander said to the Persians, "Look on these ladies as your own, dear strangers, all or any of them- only tell us your wishes. But now, as the evening wears, and I see you have all had wine enough, let them, if you please, retire, and when they have bathed they shall come back again." To this the Persians agreed, and Alexander, having got the women away, sent them off to the harem, and made ready in their room an equal number of beardless youths, whom he dressed in the garments of the women, and then, arming them with daggers, brought them in to the Persians, saying as he introduced them, "Methinks, dear Persians, that your entertainment has fallen short in nothing. We have set before you all that we had ourselves in store, and all that we could anywhere find to give you- and now, to crown

the whole, we make over to you our sisters and our mothers, that you may perceive yourselves to be entirely honoured by us, even as you deserve to be- and also that you may take back word to the king who sent you here, that there was one man, the satrap of Macedonia, by whom you were both feasted and lodged handsomely." So speaking, Alexander set by the side of each Persian one of those whom he had called Macedonian women, but who were in truth men. And these men, when the Persians began to be rude, dispatched them with their daggers. So the ambassadors perished by this death, both they and also their followers. For the Persians had brought a great train with them, carriages, and attendants, and baggage of every kind- all of which disappeared at the same time as the men themselves. Not very long afterwards the Persians made strict search for their lost embassy; but Alexander, with much wisdom, hushed up the business, bribing those sent on the errand, partly with money, and partly with the gift of his own sister Gygaea, whom he gave in marriage to Bubares, a Persian, the chief leader of the expedition which came in search of the lost men. Thus the death of these Persians was hushed up, and no more was said of it.} (From the first Book of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, ~440 BC THE HISTORY OF HERODOTUS, translated by George Rawlinson).

500 B.C. - King Alcetas widens Macedonia’s frontiers

498 B.C. - Alexander I (498-454) becomes king of Macedonia. Alexander I, called the Philhellene. In 478 B.C. Lower Macedonia is united up to Ennea Hodoi (later Amphipolis) on the river Strymon to the East, and to Pydna to the South. Alexander is a Persian ally in the Greco-Persian wars. The first coins bearing the king’s name are struck. Around 460 B.C. Herodotus visits Macedonia and describes the Greco-Persian wars from a Macedonian point of view (Interpretatio macedonica). So Macedonia emerges on the international political scene.

It is believed that Alexander I died of old age in 454 BC, at age 80. Alexander’s reign lasted 43 years from 497 to 454 BC. Alexander fathered at least six children. Three were male and legitimate heirs to the Macedonian throne but it was his son Perdiccas II who rose above all and became ruler and king.

495 B.C. - Alexander I to organize infantry and cavalry in Macedonia and to participate in Olympic Games.

484 B.C. - Herodotus (484-424) - I want to mention here that in spite of Greek claims otherwise, Irodot (Herodotus) was not from the City States and definitely not from Athens. Herodotus was Karian, born in the city Halicarnassus in Asia Minor.

480 B.C. - Macedonians participate in Salamian battle on the side of the City States.

479 B.C. - Macedonians assist the City States in the battle at Platea.

454 B.C. - Perdiccas II (454-413) becomes king of Macedonia.

453 B.C. - Perdiccas II starts war between the Athens maritime power and Sparta which lead the Peloponnesian league (Thuk., Pel., I, 57) and initiated the creation of an Olynthian league from the Greek colonies on Chalcidice, for a war against Athens (Thuk., I, 58); during the Peloponnesian war Macedonian kings were one moment on the side of Athens and the next moment on the side of Sparta, depending of their interests, not wanting either of them to become too powerful.

429 B.C. - Perdiccas II defeats Thracian king Saltik. Hippocrates, father of medicine, cures the Macedonian king.

413 B.C. - Archelaus (413-399) improved the roads, built fortresses, reorganized the army (Thuk., II, 100); around the year 400 the Thessalian Pherrhaibia became a Macedonian strategy. Archelaus moved the Macedonian capital from Aigai to Pella. He founded the Macedonian Olympic Games in Dion, (the holy city of the Macedonians). The reason for that was because “barbarians” were forbidden from participating in Greek Olympic Games, meaning the Macedonians too were forbidden (Her., V, 22).

406 B.C. - Macedonian poet Adaeus writes epitaph for the tomb stone of Athenian Euripides. Besides the apologetic work Archelaus, Euripides, during his stay in the palace of Archelaus, also wrote the

famous play Bacchae, inspired by the Macedonian cult of Dionysos. The Macedonian assembly refuses to give Euripides’ body to Athens – his birthplace.

399 B.C. - Craterus (399), 399 B.C. - Orestes (399–396) 399 B.C. - Aeropus II (399–396) 396 B.C. - Archelaus II (396–393) 393 B.C. - Amyntas II (393) 393 B.C. - Pausanias (393) 393 B.C. - Argaeus II (393–392)

393 B.C. - Amyntas (393-371) III after the dynastic wars for the Macedonian throne, is pronounced a king. He led a policy of exhausting and weakening the Greek City States. In 371 B.C., he attended the congress in Sparta for the signing of the common peace agreement, not as a representative of a Greek state, but as a concerned partner. 392 B.C. Amyntas III (392–370) becomes king of Macedonia. 391 B.C. Amyntas enthroned; he led a policy of exhausting and weakening the City States. In 371, as the interested party (Aish. II, 23) he took part in the congress at Sparta for signing a mutual peace agreement.

384 B.C. - Aristotle, a great Macedonian thinker and tutor of Alexander III, and his generation are born.

370 B.C. - Amyntas III becomes king 370 B.C. - Alexander II (370–367) becomes king 369 B.C. - Alexander II wages war on Thessaly. Leaves Macedonian garrisons in the Thessalian cities.

368 B.C. - Boiotian league interferes in the dynastic wars in Macedonia. Philip II is taken hostage to Thebes.

368 B.C. - Perdiccas III (368–359) become Regents of Macedonia 368 B.C. - Ptolemy of Aloros (368–365) become Regents of Macedonia

367 B.C. - Ptolomeus (367-365) becomes king

365 B.C. - Perdiccas III (365-359) becomes king of Macedonia.

360 B.C. - 359 B.C. Philip II (359-336) becomes king. He has been referred to as a Macedonian king of kings and initiator of the period when Macedonian ruled the world.

Philip II, the greatest man that Europe had ever given (Theop., F.GR. H., f, 27) united Macedonia and enforced Macedonian dominance upon the neighboring nations.

Philip II was born in 382 BC in Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia, and ruled Macedonia from 359 to 336 BC. Philip was the youngest son of king Amyntas III and Eurydice.

After the death of Amyntas III, Macedonia’s stability began to decline as Alexander II and later Perdiccas III unsuccessfully fought to keep it intact. The instability was triggered mainly by external attacks from the neighbouring Thracians, Illyrians and southern City States. The Thracians occupied parts of eastern Macedonia while the Illyrians were making their threats from beyond northwestern Macedonia. Thebes, the mightiest military power at that time, often interfered in Macedonia’s affairs while the colonies in Chalcidice posed obstacles to Macedonia's economic prosperity and were often a threat to Macedonia’s security.

From what Diodorus Siculus tells us, while the Thebans held him hostage between 368 and 365 BC, Philip showed extraordinary interest in studying their military techniques and weapons. Philip was especially interested in understanding the fighting style of the elite Theban Sacred Band, which would become important to him later in his career while reforming his own military. After Philip was released from Thebes, at his brother’s (Perdiccas III) request, he immediately began to implement his reforms and reorganize the Macedonian military.

Unfortunately before Philip was finished, he lost his brother. While fighting the Illyrians in northwestern Macedonia, Perdiccas III was mortally wounded and died in battle. Worse yet, during the same battle, the Macedonians suffered a demoralizing defeat losing about 4,000 soldiers, which constituted most of the Macedonian army.

Victorious, the Illyrians moved in and occupied northwestern Macedonia. Perched on the mountains of Lyncus they became a threat to the very existence of the Macedonian kingdom.

359 B.C. - Amyntas IV (359–356), the infant son of Perdiccas III becomes king. Philip II was appointed his guardian after Philip was elected commander and chief by the army.

Appointed by the Macedonian army, after his brother’s death, Philip ascended to the Macedonian throne in the most difficult times. His kingdom was virtually on the brink of collapse and his neighbours, hovering like vultures, were poised to put an end to his existence. Besides the usual threats from outside, Macedonia was further weakened by internal strife. There were pretenders from inside who wanted to usurp the Macedonian throne for themselves. Some of them were encouraged and supported by foreign powers. Despite tremendous pressure, the 21-year-old king was not discouraged and soon demonstrated his abilities, not only as a competent ruler but also as a skilful diplomat.

Soon after taking control of his kingdom he bribed the Thracian king with gifts and convinced him to execute the first Macedonian pretender who, at the time, was hiding in the Thracian court. The second pretender, supported by Athens, he defeated in battle. Careful not to upset the Athenians, he appeased them by signing a treaty ceding Amphipolis to them. In a little more than a year he had removed all internal threats and secured his kingdom by firmly establishing himself on the throne.

358 B.C. - Philip II defeats the Illyrians

Determined to free northwestern Macedonia, in 358 BC Philip put his reformed army to the test and fought the Illyrians face to face in a fierce battle. Setting aside all fears from the previous battle, the mighty Macedonian army faced the legendary Illyrians and won an overwhelming victory. The Illyrians fled in panic leaving behind 7,000 dead, almost three-quarters of their entire army.

“Without delay he (Philip) convened an assembly, raised the war-spirit of his men by suitable words, and led them into the territory held by the Illyrians, his army numbering not less than 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. Bardylis (the Illyrian chief) had not yet mustered the huge forces he had intended to lead into lower Macedonia. He therefore offered peace on the basis of the status quo. Philip replied that peace was acceptable only if Bardylis would evacuate his troops from all the Macedonian cities. This Bardylis was not prepared to do. Confident in the marvelous record and the numerous victories of his elite Illyrian troops, numbering 10,000 infantry and 500 cavalry, he advanced to engage in the open plain of Lyncus. The battle-cries of 20,000 voiced resounded from the hills.

Whether there was a preliminary cavalry engagement or not, Bardylis realized that he was outclassed in cavalry. In order to protect the flank and rear of his spearmen-phalanx from attacks by the enemy cavalry, he made his infantry form a hollow rectangle, of which the front facing the enemy was held by his best men and the other sides by less skilled troops, all facing outwards. The disadvantage of this formation was its immobility. The initiative lay now with Philip, who saw at once the merit of an attack on the enemy’s leftmost front and left-hand side. He marched his phalanx forward at an oblique angle to the enemy’s front, his right being advanced and his left retarded, and he massed his cavalry on his right. The king and the Royal Guardsmen were the leading infantrymen of the Macedonian right. As they approached the stationary Illyrians, they charged the enemy’s left front with their massed pikes lowered (pikes never before seen by the Illyrians), smashed the corner of the square completely and let the cavalry in to attack the disrupted formation in flank and rear. The Illyrians broke and fled. The pursuit by the cavalry over the plain caused huge casualties: 7,000 out of 10,500. Bardylis sent envoys to sue for peace. Philip buried his dead on the battlefield in accordance with Macedonian custom, and made terms for peace, which included not only the recovery of all Macedonian cities but also the cession of territory up to the north-east shore of Lake Lychnitis. The peace with Bardylis was cemented by the marriage of Philip to an Illyrian princess, Audata.” (Page 62, Nicholas G. L. Hammond, The Miracle That Was Macedonia)

Northwestern Macedonia was now free, all the Upper Macedonia cantons, including Lyncestia, the birthplace of Philip’s mother, were now firmly under Macedonian control and loyal to their liberator Philip II.

Philip was aware that with a small army of 10,000 he could not defend his kingdom, not even against the defeated Illyrian chief who had even more reserve troops at his disposal. To secure his kingdom and create a pool of new recruits, Philip convinced the chiefs of the smaller kingdoms to join him. To those who did, he offered honourable positions in his court.

With his western frontier secure, Philip moved on to the east to secure the Struma basin north of Chalcidice. His presence there alarmed the colonies, especially Amphipolis, and sent them in panic complaining to Athens. But Athens, having problems of her own, was powerless to act and allowed Philip to conduct his operations unabated.

357 B.C. - Philip II takes Amphipolis

After unsuccessfully trying to secure an alliance by peaceful means, Philip amassed a larger army and attacked Amphipolis. By using his improved siege-train he was able to quickly break through the city’s heavily fortified barriers. “In 357, after breaking through the walls with his siege engines (Diod. 16.8.2), he took Amphipolis, thereby accomplishing in a few weeks what the Athenians failed to achieve in more than sixty years.” (Page 213, Eugene Borza, In the Shadow of Olympus The Emergence of Macedon)

As promised before the siege and true to his word, Philip, after occupying her, gave Amphipolis her independence under the supervision of Macedonian overseers.

357 B.C. - Athens declares war on Philip II

Athens was divided internally into anti-Macedonians led by Demosthenes, Hyperetes and Lykurgos and pro-Macedonians or so called Philipists led by Isokrates, Eubylos, Philokrates and others.

During the same year (357 BC), Philip, in spite of Athenian opposition, acquired the city of Potidaea in Chalcidice. Turning northward Philip also conquered Pydna, another City State colony on the Macedonian coast.

A couple of years later, Philip acquired the city of Methone, a long time Athenian base located near Pydna. Unfortunately, this particular victory was bittersweet as Philip, during the siege, lost his sight in one eye to an arrow. In the same year, the Macedonian army advanced eastward into Thracian territory and took the town of Crenides (located near modern day Drama) which its residents later renamed Philippi. Crenides was not just an ordinary outpost; it was also the processing headquarters for the hinterland and mountain gold mines, which Philip added to his Macedonian possessions. Some of the revenues derived from gold mining were reinvested to drain the nearby marshlands making the region around Philippi a showcase for new development. The Macedonian eastern frontier extending to the River Mesta was now secure.

Before I continue with Philip’s exploits to the south, I want to digress for a moment and talk about Philip’s many marriages. The Macedonian tradition of securing alliances by marriage was practiced long before Philip’s time. It was probably invented during the Stone Age to strengthen family ties. According to Borza, the best source to explain Philip’s complicated marriages is the biographer Satyrus. I doubt however, if Satyrus ever understood the true meaning of this tradition. I also want to make it clear that ancient behaviour towards marriages has nothing to do with our modern perception and values of marriage. Here is what Borza has to say:

“He married Audata the Illyrian and had from her a daughter, Cynna. And then he married Phila, the sister of Derdas and Machatas. Then, as he wanted to appropriate the Thessalian people as well, on grounds of kinship, he fathered children by two Thessalian women, one of whom was Nikesipolis of Pherae, who bore him Thessalonike, and the other, Philinna of Larisa, by whom he fathered Arrhidaeus. Then he acquired the kingdom of the Molossians as well, by marrying Olympias. From her he had Alexander and Cleopatra. And then, when he conquered Thrace, Cothelas, the King of the Thracians, came over to him bringing his

daughter Meda and many gifts. Having married her too, he brought her into his household besides Olympias. Then, in addition to all these, he married Cleopatra, the sister of Hippostratus and niece of Attalus, having fallen in love with her. And when he brought her into his household beside Olympias, he threw his whole life into confusion. For immediately, during the actual wedding celebration, Attalus said, ‘Now surely there will be born for us legitimate kings and not bastards.’ Now Alexander, when he heard this, threw the cup, which he was holding in his hands, at Attalus; thereupon he too threw his goblet at Alexander. After this Olympias fled to the Molossians and Alexander to the Illyrians. And Cleopatra bore Philip the daughter named Europa.” (Page 206-207, Eugene Borza, In the Shadow of Olympus The Emergence of Macedon)

356 B.C. - Alexander III is born in Pella. Athens established an anti-Macedonian coalition with the Illyrians, Thracians and the Paionians; Philip unifies with the Chalcidian League.

From the union of Philip and Polyxena (nicknamed Olympias by Philip), in 356 BC, was born Alexander who in a few short years would become king Alexander III.

Early in his career Philip realized that in order to defend against ongoing aggression he needed a full time army. He built his army by making the military a way of life for the ordinary Macedonian. Soldiering became a professional occupation that paid well enough to make a living, year-round. Unlike before when soldiering was a part time job, something that men would do during their free time, Philip’s soldiers could be counted on at all times. The new Macedonian soldier was given the opportunity to develop team skills, unity, cohesion and trust in his peers, the kind of qualities a part time soldier would lack.

The Macedonian soldiers were not the only ones to benefit from Philip’s reforms. A full time army required arms, shelter, food and clothing. To support it, a whole new industry had to be developed employing a variety of people and skills.

I also want to point out that we must not forget the general contribution of the Macedonian population who not only supplied

their king with soldiers but also provided the labour to cultivate his lands and feed his army, build his roads, weapons, siege engines and ships. Philip would have been powerless without the support and loyalty of the Macedonian people.

352 B.C. - Philip II tagos of Thessalian League; Demosthenes orated the four Philippics: I (351), II (344) and III and IV (341), and the three Olynthians in 349.

With his army reorganized, full of confidence and equipped with modern weapons, Philip turned his attention south. He first went to Thessaly where he won an easy victory. By 352 BC he was in firm control of a region extending as far south as the pass of Thermopylae. As part of the peace treaty with the Thessalians, Philip married Nicesipolis, a local woman of prominence. Nicesipolis bore Philip a daughter whom he named Thessalonika to commemorate his victory over Thessaly.

351 B.C. - Demosthenes delivers first Philippic

Philip’s antagonists unfortunately viewed what was good for Macedonia with suspicion. This included the great Athenian orator, Demosthenes. In 351 BC Demosthenes delivered his first Philippic, a series of speeches warning the City States about the Macedonian threat to their liberty. His second Philippic was delivered in 344 BC, his third in 341 BC and his three Olynthiacs in 349 BC, all directed to arouse Athens and the others against Philip.

Demosthenes’s most famous oration was the third Philippic which speaks of Philip as being "not only not Greek, nor related to the Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that can be named with honors, but a pestilent knave from Macedonia, whence it was never yet possible to buy a decent slave" (Third Philippic, 31). Words which echo the fact that the ancient City States regarded the ancient Macedonians as “dangerous neighbors” but never as kinsmen.

350 B.C. - River Nestos Macedonia’s Eastern frontier

With Thessaly on his side Philip was now staring down at the northern gate of the City States, which at the time, was well guarded by powerful Athenian, Spartan and Achaean forces.

With his southern frontier secured, Philip returned to Macedonia to take care of business closer to home. In 348 BC he sent his Macedonian army to the Chalcidice peninsula and cleared out some of the colonial encroachments, starting with the City State of Olynthus. Olynthus was the grand city of the northern City States, a symbol of power that stood in Macedonia’s way. Philip sacked Olynthus and sold its population into slavery, a practice which at that time was expected of City States but not of Macedonians. Like Methone before, Olynthus and some 31 other Chalcidician cities were cleared of intrusions and their lands were redistributed to the Macedonians. One of the cities sacked was Stageira, the birthplace of Aristotle. When Philip was finished, he ended foreign encroachment and reclaimed the entire Chalcidice peninsula for his Macedonians.

Up until 348 BC, even though Philip controlled virtually everything north of the Lamian Gulf, he was never a real threat to the powerful City States in the south. He may have annexed their colonies and cut off access to some of their markets but he was never a threat to their way of life or existence.

348 B.C. - Philip II acts on Thessaly’s behalf

In 348 BC, however, things started to change. It began with Philip’s intervention, on Thessaly’s behalf, to free Delphi from rebel elements. Delphi was a religious center whose neutrality was guarded by the Amphictyonic League, an ancient and mainly religious association of the central City States. When a rebellious splinter faction of the Amphictyonic League broke away and threatened the center’s neutrality, Philip was called in to sort things out.

Philip was more than willing to oblige his Thessalian allies but at the same time he had to be cautious not to upset the Athenians and Thebans who opposed each other but also had vested interests in

Delphi. At this stage, an Athenian-Theban alliance would have been catastrophic for Macedonia and had to be avoided at all costs.

Being already allied with Thebes, Philip considered a diplomatic move with Athens by offering the Athenians joint participation in removing the rebels. Unfortunately, the Athenians in Athens, being suspicious of Philip’s motives, declined and among themselves proposed to take countermeasures to stop Philip from intervening altogether, even by force if necessary. Fortunately, before any damage was done, wisdom prevailed and the Athenians decided to talk to Philip before attacking him. Being a master of diplomacy, the wily Philip convinced his elder Athenians that he meant no harm and only wished to see this matter solved peacefully. To appease the Athenians he went a step further and personally offered guarantees of Athenian hegemony over several regions near Attica, something the Athenians had desired for a long time. Philip’s latest proposal was a success and gained full Athenian acceptance. It even gained support from Demosthenes, Philip’s staunchest critic.

Unfortunately, what was viewed as fair by Athens was obviously viewed as unfair by Thebes and problems began to arise. To get himself out of this, Philip turned to the Amphictyonic Council and asked the council members to disbar the rebel group by vote and replace it with the Macedonian king. In a stroke of genius Philip evaded an impending war with Athens, ended the rebellion at Delphi, saved the Amphictyony, averted a war with Thebes, made an alliance with Athens and made himself a voting member of the Amphictyonic League. This indeed was a diplomatic victory, worthy of the Macedonian king himself.

345 B.C. - Philip II leads his army against the Illyrians, Dardanians and the Thracians

344 B.C. - Thessalians rebel against Macedonia

Despite Demosthenes’s castigation, peace held, at least for now, and having an equal seat in the council of power, Philip was free to return to Macedonia. Most of 345 BC, Philip spent leading his army against the Illyrians, Dardanians and the Thracians and generally quelling rebellions. In 344 BC the Thessalians rebelled but were put

down swiftly. In 342 BC, Philip marched into Epirus and replaced King Arybbas with his young protégé and brother-in-law Alexander (Amaxis).

Sensing growing discontentment in the Athenians, Philip estimated that it would be a matter of time before war would break out between Macedonia and Athens, especially since Athens amended the Macedonian-Athenian peace agreement hoping it would be unacceptable to Philip.

Determined to attract as many City States as possible to his side, Philip continued to make alliances with the smaller cities. He was determined to attract the cities that were hostile to the more powerful states in hopes of dividing and weakening them.

By 340 BC, a point of no return was reached with Athens when Philip could no longer accommodate Athenian demands to sustain the peace treaty, especially after Athens sponsored anti-Macedonian uprisings in the northern Aegean. In retaliation for this latest Athenian treachery, in 340 BC while campaigning against internal rebellions in the east, Philip captured the Athenian grain fleet. This was the last straw for Athens and under the personal leadership of Demosthenes, the Athenians persuaded the Thebans to jointly declare war on Macedonia. The weaker states, having little choice in the matter, also joined the declaration. What Philip tried to avoid at all costs was now unavoidable.

340 B.C. - Philip II besieges Byzantium and Perinthos

Fights war with the Scythians (Iust., IX, 2). Sixteen year old Alexander replaces him on the throne, undertakes a campaign against the Maidoi and establishes the city Alexandropolis.

Before Philip could accommodate his neighbours to the south, he had some unfinished business to take care of in the north. He quickly assembled a large army and marched deep into Thracian territory and by 339 BC conquered most of Thrace. Unfortunately, he was unable to subdue the eastern coastal cities of Byzantium and Perinthus, which withstood even his most severe sieges. It was certain that neither city would have survived had it not been for the

assistance received from the southern City States and the Persians. Ironically, even though Persia, for more than a century, had been the most hated nation, still the City States sided with the Persians against the Macedonians.

339 B.C. - Philip clashes with Scythians

Responding to a Scythian challenge Philip abandoned the eastern city sieges and, in the spring of 339 BC, led his Macedonians beyond Thrace. There, near the Danube River, he clashed with the Scythians and won a stunning victory crowned only by the death of Areas, the Scythian king.

339 B.C. - Philip defeats Triballians on Macedonia’s northern border.

Unfortunately, on his return trip home Philip’s convoy was attacked and his booty was lost to Thracian Triballians. During the skirmish, Philip suffered a severe leg injury, which left him lame for life. After returning home he spent several months recovering.

338 B.C. - Battle at Chaeronea takes place